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References and further reading
1 National Research Council (NRC), Ocean Noise and Marine Mammals (National Academies Press, 2003).
2 L. E. Kinsler, A. R. Frey, A. B. Coppens, and J. V. Sanders, Fundamentals of Acoustics, 3rd Edition (John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1982).
3 H. Medwin and C. S. Clay, Fundamentals of Acoustical Oceanography (Academic Press, San Diego, 1998).
4 V. O. Knudsen, R. S. Alford, and J. W. Emling, Survey of Underwater Sound, Report No. 3, Ambient Noise, OSRD Report No. 4333, Sec. No, 6.1-NDRC-1848 (1944).
5 V. O. Knudsen, R. S. Alford, and J. W. Emling, “Underwater ambient noise,” J. Marine Res. 7, 410–429 (1948).
6 G. M. Wenz, “Acoustic ambient noise in the ocean: spectra and sources,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 34, 1936–1956 (1962).
7 C. H. Harrison, “Formulas for ambient noise level and coherence,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 99, 2055–2066 (1996).
8 G. B. Morris, “Depth dependence of ambient noise in the northeast- ern Pacific Ocean,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 64, 581–590 (1978).
9 S. Levitus and T. Boyer, World Ocean Atlas 1994, Vol 4: Temperature, NOAA Atlas NESDIC Vol. 4 (U.S. Dept of Commerce, Washington, D.C. 1994).
10 V. A. Del Grosso, “New equation for the speed of sound in natural waters (with comparison to other equations),” J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 56, 1084–1091 (1974).
11 M. J. Buckingham and S. A. S. Jones, “A new shallow-ocean tech- nique for determining the critical angle of the seabed from the ver- tical directionality of the ambient noise in the water column,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 81, 938–946 (1987).
12 R. J. Urick, Principles of Underwater Sound (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1983).
13 C. S. McCreery, F. K. Duennebier, and G. H. Sutton, “Correlation of deep ocean noise (0.4 – 30 Hz) with wind, and the Holu Spectrum - A worldwide constant,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 93, 2639–2648 (1993). The first author wishes to thank Ralph Stephen (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution) for providing additional information on this topic.
14 D. Ross, Mechanics of Underwater Noise (Pergamon Press, New York, 1976).
15 S. C. Wales and R. M. Heitmeyer, “An ensemble source spectra for merchant ship-radiated noise,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 111, 1211–1231 (2002).
16 A. Prosperetti, “Bubble-related ambient noise in the ocean,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 84, 1024–1054 (1988).
17 W. M. Carey and D. G. Browning, “Low-frequency ocean ambient noise: measurements and theory,” in Sea Surface Sound, edited by B.R. Kerman, (Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, 1988), pp. 361–376.
18 M. L. Banner and D. H. Cato, “Physical mechanisms of noise gener- ation by breaking waves–a laboratory study,” in Natural Physical Sources of Underwater Sound – Sea Surface Sound (2nd Edition), edited by B.R. Kerman, (Kluwer, Dordrecht, 1993), pp. 429–436.
19 H. Medwin and M. M. Beaky, “Bubble sources of the Knudsen sea noise spectra,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 89, 1124–1130 (1989).
20 B. B. Ma, J. A. Nystuen, and R-C. Lien, “Prediction of underwater sound levels from rain and wind,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 117, 3555–3565 (2005).
21 D. H. Cato, “Features of ambient noise in shallow water,” in Shallow Water Acoustics, edited by R. Zhang and J. Zhou, (China Ocean Press, 1997), pp. 385–390.
22 R. D. Gaul, D. P. Knobles, J. A. Shooter, and A. F. Wittenborn, “Ambient noise analysis of deep ocean measurements in the Northeast Pacific,” IEEE J. Oceanic Eng. (in press).
23 J. A. Scrimger, D. J. Evans, G. A. McBean, D. M. Farmer, and B. R. Kerman, “Underwater noise due to rain, hail, and snow,” J. Acoust.
Soc. Am. 81, 79–86 (1987).
24 J. A. Nystuen, C. C. McGlothin, and M. S. Cook, “The underwater
sound generated by heavy rainfall,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 93,
3169–3177 (1993).
25 R. K. Andrew, B. M. Howe, J. A. Mercer, and M. A. Dzieciuch,
“Ocean ambient sound: Comparing the 1960s with the 1990s for a receiver off the California coast,” Acoust. Res. Lett. Online 3, 65–70 (2002).
26 G. M. Wenz, “Low-frequency deep-water ambient noise along the Pacific Coast of the United States,” U.S. Navy J. Underwater Acoust. 19, 423–444 (1969).
27 M. A. McDonald, J. A. Hildebrand and S.M. Wiggens, “Increases in deep ocean ambient noise in the Northeast Pacific west of San Nicolas Island, California,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 120, 711–718 (2006).
28 H. M. Walkinshaw, “Measurements of ambient noise spectra in the South Norwegian Sea,” IEEE J. Oceanic Eng. 30, 262–266 (2005).
29 These measurements were made by three of the teams participating
in the Asian Seas International Acoustics Experiment conducted in the East China Sea in May/June 2001, approximately 500 km east of the China coastline off Shanghai. Lowest frequency band (thickest, blue line) are from the Marine Physical Laboratory, Scripps courtesy of C.-F. Huang and W.S. Hodgkiss. Mid-Frequency band (thick, blue line) are from the Institute of Acoustics, Beijing courtesy of Renhe Zhang, Zhaohui Peng, Zhenglin Li, and Fenghua Li. Highest fre- quency band (thinnest, blue line) are from the Applied Physics Laboratory, University of Washington.
30 J. Na, J. Kim, and J. Choi, “Characteristics of ambient-noise in the shallow coastal area,” J. Acoust. Soc. Korea 10, 58–63 (1991).
31 A. L. Anderson and G. J. Grubert, “Ambient-noise measurements at 30, 90, and 150 kHz in five ports,” J. Acoust. Soc. Korea 49, 928–930 (1971).
32 M. P. Fish, “Biological sources of sustained ambient sea noise” in Marine Bio-Acoustics, edited by W.N. Tavolga, (Pergamon, Oxford, 1964).
33 D. H. Cato, “Marine biological choruses observed in tropical waters near Australia,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 64, 736–743 (1978).
34 W. W. L. Au, J. Mobley, W. C. Burgess, M. O. Lammers, and P. E. Nachtigall, “Seasonal and diurnal trends of chorusing humpback whales wintering in waters off Western Maui,” Marine Mammal Sci. 16, 530–544 (2000).
35 F. A. Everest, R. W. Young, and M. W. Johnson, “Acoustical charac- teristics of noise produced by snapping shrimp,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 20, 137–142 (1948).
36 I. Dyer, “Speculations on the origin of low frequency arctic ocean noise,” in Sea Surface Sound, edited by B.R. Kerman (Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, 1988), pp. 513–532.
37 N. C. Makris and I. Dyer, “Environmental correlates of pack ice noise,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 79, 1434–1440 (1986).
38 A. C. Kibblewhite and D. A. Jones, “Ambient noise under Antarctic sea ice,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 59, 790–797 (1978).
39 The measurements were made by P.H. Dahl (using an Ono Sokki LA-5111 Type I sound level meter) who received assistance at the site from colleagues Per Reinhall and Jee Woong Choi from the University of Washington, and from Jim Laughlin from the Washington State Dept. of Transportation, who provided us with unique access to Interstate-5. Meteorological conditions were rep- resented by wind speed < 5 m/s, temperature 5o C, and relative humidity 70%.
40 C. S. Y. Lee and G. G. Fleming, Measurements of Highway Related Noise, U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration Final Report FHWA-PD-96-046 (1996).
41 M. E. Nilsson and B. Berglund, “Noise annoyance and activity dis- turbance before and after erection of a roadside noise barrier,” J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 119, 2178–2188 (2006).
32 Acoustics Today, January 2007